Llamas live in grassy open spaces at very high altitudes of 7,400 - 12,800 feet, where the air is so thin there is only 40% oxygen. The reason llamas can live in this type of environment is because they have adapted to low-oxygen environments. Llamas have unique blood that adapts well to the poor oxygen in the high altitudes where they live. Llamas have more red blood cells per unit volume of blood than any other mammal. The hemoglobin, which is the oxygen carrying substance of the cell, reacts faster with oxygen. Llamas live at altitudes above 5000 feet where atmospheric pressure is lower and therefore less available oxygen. With increasing altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower resulting in what is generally called ‘thin air’. Basically this means there are less oxygen molecules available per unit of air. Mammals employ different physiological adaptations to survive in low-oxygen environments such as: high oxygen affinity to hemoglobin (the respiratory pigment), a reduced heart rate, a lower metabolic rate, a higher blood volume percentage, higher hemoglobin content (a protein that stores oxygen in muscle tissue and allows muscle tissue to be active for prolonged periods), and altered distribution of blood flow to tissues.
The Alpine plains are dry and cold and the soil is not very good. The grass is difficult for most animals to digest, but the llamas are able to adapt to these harsh conditions. Most llamas today live in the high Andes Mountains of western South America. Llamas are suited to their environment as they have 2 toes per foot and the bottoms of their feet are padded with tough leathery soles to protect them from sharp rocks. Unlike other hoofed animals llamas have feet with 2 toes, the bottom part of the foot is divided in 2 and is covered by a tough leathery sole. Llamas are especially sure-footed. Because of these pads, they have a good foothold on rocky and slippery ground. Another suited adaption of the llama is that they have long, thick, coarse hair with spots of color that can protect them from being attacked by prey. By evolving at higher altitudes llamas have a large lung capacity and an ability to use oxygen in the blood more efficiently than other animals.
Mice in lowlands had a different β –globin (more stable hemoglobin) than mice in highlands (unstable hemoglobin, i.e. higher affinity to oxygen). This implies some sort of divergent selection based on habitat locations of deer mice. Deer mice that live in woodlands are typically larger and have larger tails and feet than deer mice that live in prairies. Deer mice have round and slender bodies. The head has a pointed nose with large, black, beady eyes. The ears are large and have little fur covering them. The whiskers are long and prominent. Deer mice are grayish to reddish brown with white underparts. The fur is short, soft, and dense. The finely-haired tail is dark on top and light on the bottom, with a sharp division between the two colors. Deer mice have adapted to living in high altitudes they have low blood pressure and a large lung capacity.
Animals in high-altitude, low-oxygen environments are subject to hypoxia, a condition that results when arterial blood does not carry a sufficient supply of oxygen to bodily tissues. Among the high-altitude mice, mutations have been found in four different hemoglobin genes that enable the animals to tolerate chronic hypoxia.
The deer mouse native to Andes highlands (up to 3,000 m) are found to have relatively low content of haemoglobin. Measurement of food intake, gut mass, and cardiopulmonary organ mass indicated proportional increase in mice living at high altitudes, which in turn show that life at high altitudes demands higher levels of energy. Structural comparisons show that in contrast to normal haemoglobin, the deer mouse haemoglobin lacks the hydrogen bond and there is a unique hydrogen bond at the α1β1 interface between residues. Variations in the globin genes (α and β-globin) seem to be the basis for increased oxygen-affinity of the haemoglobin and faster transport of oxygen. The mutations found in high-altitude mice increase the oxygen-binding affinity of hemoglobin, which in turn augments the concentration of oxygen in the arterial bloodstream. The mutations were absent in the low-altitude mice.
Department of Biology, University of California at Riverside found that mice that developed at high altitude did not have a higher aerobic capacity than those that developed at low altitude and were acclimated to high altitude as adults. Both groups tested at high altitudes had higher hematocrits (% red blood cells) and hemoglobin than mice tested at low altitudes. Surprisingly, mice acclimated to low altitudes and given an instantaneous exposure to hypoxia did not suffer a depression in aerobic performance.
In a comprehensive study by Snyder et al. it was demonstrated that a strong correlation exists between blood oxygen affinity and altitude. Mice at high altitude exhibited the strongest blood-oxygen affinity, corresponding to a lower P50 value and a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve to the left (1982). The trend exhibited by the deer mice is similar to the llama; deer mice have an increased ability to extract oxygen from low pressure areas.
The Alpine plains are dry and cold and the soil is not very good. The grass is difficult for most animals to digest, but the llamas are able to adapt to these harsh conditions. Most llamas today live in the high Andes Mountains of western South America. Llamas are suited to their environment as they have 2 toes per foot and the bottoms of their feet are padded with tough leathery soles to protect them from sharp rocks. Unlike other hoofed animals llamas have feet with 2 toes, the bottom part of the foot is divided in 2 and is covered by a tough leathery sole. Llamas are especially sure-footed. Because of these pads, they have a good foothold on rocky and slippery ground. Another suited adaption of the llama is that they have long, thick, coarse hair with spots of color that can protect them from being attacked by prey. By evolving at higher altitudes llamas have a large lung capacity and an ability to use oxygen in the blood more efficiently than other animals.
Mice in lowlands had a different β –globin (more stable hemoglobin) than mice in highlands (unstable hemoglobin, i.e. higher affinity to oxygen). This implies some sort of divergent selection based on habitat locations of deer mice. Deer mice that live in woodlands are typically larger and have larger tails and feet than deer mice that live in prairies. Deer mice have round and slender bodies. The head has a pointed nose with large, black, beady eyes. The ears are large and have little fur covering them. The whiskers are long and prominent. Deer mice are grayish to reddish brown with white underparts. The fur is short, soft, and dense. The finely-haired tail is dark on top and light on the bottom, with a sharp division between the two colors. Deer mice have adapted to living in high altitudes they have low blood pressure and a large lung capacity.
Animals in high-altitude, low-oxygen environments are subject to hypoxia, a condition that results when arterial blood does not carry a sufficient supply of oxygen to bodily tissues. Among the high-altitude mice, mutations have been found in four different hemoglobin genes that enable the animals to tolerate chronic hypoxia.
The deer mouse native to Andes highlands (up to 3,000 m) are found to have relatively low content of haemoglobin. Measurement of food intake, gut mass, and cardiopulmonary organ mass indicated proportional increase in mice living at high altitudes, which in turn show that life at high altitudes demands higher levels of energy. Structural comparisons show that in contrast to normal haemoglobin, the deer mouse haemoglobin lacks the hydrogen bond and there is a unique hydrogen bond at the α1β1 interface between residues. Variations in the globin genes (α and β-globin) seem to be the basis for increased oxygen-affinity of the haemoglobin and faster transport of oxygen. The mutations found in high-altitude mice increase the oxygen-binding affinity of hemoglobin, which in turn augments the concentration of oxygen in the arterial bloodstream. The mutations were absent in the low-altitude mice.
Department of Biology, University of California at Riverside found that mice that developed at high altitude did not have a higher aerobic capacity than those that developed at low altitude and were acclimated to high altitude as adults. Both groups tested at high altitudes had higher hematocrits (% red blood cells) and hemoglobin than mice tested at low altitudes. Surprisingly, mice acclimated to low altitudes and given an instantaneous exposure to hypoxia did not suffer a depression in aerobic performance.
In a comprehensive study by Snyder et al. it was demonstrated that a strong correlation exists between blood oxygen affinity and altitude. Mice at high altitude exhibited the strongest blood-oxygen affinity, corresponding to a lower P50 value and a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve to the left (1982). The trend exhibited by the deer mice is similar to the llama; deer mice have an increased ability to extract oxygen from low pressure areas.